A Comprehensive Review on Geopolymer Concrete Incorporating Industrial and Agricultural Supplementary Cementitious Materials: Reaction Mechanisms, Mechanical Performance, and Durability Characteristics
Keywords:
Geopolymer concrete; Supplementary cementitious materials; GGBFS; Fly ash; Sugarcane bagasse ash; Rice husk ash; Al kaline activation; Durability; Sustainable constructionAbstract
Geopolymer concrete has gained considerable attention as a low-carbon alternative to conventional Portland cement systems through the utilisation of industrial and agricultural by-products as primary aluminosilicate precursors. This review consolidates recent advancements in geopolymer concrete incorporating supplementary cementitious materials such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), fly ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, rice husk ash, and other silica-rich residues. The influence of chemical composition, reactive silica content, calcium availability, and particle fineness on geopolymerisation kinetics and gel formation is critically examined. Fly ash-based binders typically promote enhanced workability and gradual strength development, whereas GGBFS contributes to rapid setting and improved early-age strength due to the coexistence of C–(A)–S–H and N–A–S–H gels. Processed agricultural ashes provide additional amorphous silica, leading to pore refinement and improved durability characteristics. The review further evaluates the effect of alkaline activator type, molarity, silicate-to-hydroxide ratio, curing regime, and precursor blending on mechanical and durability performance. Resistance against sulphate attack, chloride ingress, acid exposure, and elevated temperatures is comparatively discussed. Microstructural evidence obtained from XRD, SEM, and FTIR analyses confirms the formation of dense geopolymeric matrices with reduced porosity under optimised conditions. Key challenges, including variability of waste-derived materials, consistency in fresh properties, and long-term durability assessment, are also addressed. Overall, the incorporation of diverse supplementary materials in geopolymer concrete presents a technically viable pathway toward sustainable and durable construction materials.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2393.8315.202503
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